Examine The Distinctions Between Theories Of International Relations Politics Essay

Examine The Distinctions Between Theories Of International Relations Politics Essay Critically examine the distinctions between explanatory and constitutive theories of international relations, illustrating your argument with insights from a variety of theoretical perspectives The distinction between explanatory and constitutive theory is a contested issue that has emerged as a result of the contemporary way of framing issues in International Relations. I will argue that this is an ambiguous and superficial distinction that when pressed to categorise theoretical concepts requires an oversimplification and carries a danger of negligence. I then offer an alternative categorisation; that put forward by Robert Cox ( 1981): problem-solving and critical theory. I conclude by arguing that the act of categorising in itself is highly problematic. Explanatory theory views the world as something external to our theories, indentifying a number of key factors and then predicting a range of outcomes on the basis of a few important causal factors. (Kurki Wight, 2007, p.28) In contrast, constitutive theory argues that our theories help construct our world and that we cannot separate subject and object as a causal relationship; but instead theory and practice are embedded. The epistemology of explanatory theory is positivist, arguing that we can have authentic value- free knowledge based upon sense experience and methodologically using empirical data to produce universal conditionals. (Baylis et al., 2008, p.177) Constitutive theory rejects this epistemological and methodological approach, arguing that human knowledge is not based on neutral foundations, but rather upon human conjectures. Instead, constitutive theory is concerned with the study of how norms, rules and ideas are constituted in social objects; preferring to study from a meta-theoretical perspective. (Kurki Wight, 2007, p.29) Realism, an orthodox theory, is regarded as a classic example of explanatory theory. (Kurki Wight, 2007, p.28) Realism claims that politics and society are governed by objective laws based upon a fixed conception of human nature. (Morgenthau, 1967) The Realist conception of human nature has its roots in the Hobbesian man; a creature of self-preservation, countless appetites and desires; when added to the anarchical state of nature the life of man is solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short. (Hobbes, 2008, p.84) This image of man is then extrapolated into the state and world order, giving Realism a rational outline that concludes that states are by nature power maximizers. (Rosenberg, 2001, p.17) This concept of power imposes intellectual discipline upon the observer, infuses rational order into the subject matter of politics (Morgenthau, 1967) and produces the idealistic  [1]  conception of a balance of power. Overall, Realism advocates a broad positivist scientific epistemolog y by a determinate causal relation between the object and subject i.e. the fixed objective nature of man into a subjective social power relation between states. Another orthodox explanatory theory is said to be Liberalism, which sets out a common positivist epistemology and ontological emphasis on human nature. The Liberal perspective accepts the Realist ontology of human nature and state-centricity, but differs by emphasising the rational qualities of individuals and a faith in the progress of social life. Despite the fixed conception of human nature, man is able to cooperate and construct a peaceful society. (Russett, 2007, p.96) Although not denying the international system is anarchical, there is a disagreement as to what this means and why it matters. (Baldwin, 1993, p.4) Liberalism has a belief in democratic governments, economic interdependence and international law and institutions, in a series of feedback loops each factor strengthening the other and leading to a self-perpetuating peaceful system. (Russett, 2007, p.107) In a sense Liberalism breaks from away from the Realist conception of man, to a more central role of rational indi viduals cooperating and constructing a peaceful society. Once more Liberalism applies a positivist methodology by relating the agency of human nature as the ontological basis and predicting structural power relations between states. So far I have focused upon two generalised orthodox theories and argued that both categorise neatly within the explanatory bracket. However, when moving to the third paradigm of International Relations theory Marxism we find that the distinctions become obscure and potentially misleading if operated negligently. Marxisms methodology operates on a dual basis of dialectical and historical materialism; if taken separately I believe Marxism can wrongly be defined as explanatory theory, whereas, taken in its correct dual sense Marxism bridges the gap between explanatory and constitutive theories. Firstly, dialectical materialism is a theory of struggle and must be understood as in direct opposition to idealism. Contrary to the orthodox theories, dialectics does not regard nature as an accidental agglomeration of things, independent and isolated such as the ontological basis of power and human nature but a connected and integrated whole, in which things are organically interdependent. The dialectical methodology is holistic and therefore holds that we cannot understand the phenomena in nature, if isolated from surrounding phenomena. Contrary to orthodox theory, human nature is not in a state of rest, fixed and immobile, but in a state of continuous movement and change. This dialectical approach has important implications for the way in which Marxism studies social life, removing it from a simple object and subject split, whilst also distinguishing its methodology from orthodox theory. As Marx himself put it, as soon as this active life-process is described, history ceases to be a collection of dead facts as it is with the empiricists. (Marx Engels, 1970, p.48) Nevertheless, Marxism still retains an element of explanatory quality, as dialectical materialism envisages a process of development; where qualitative changes occur not gradually, but rapidly and abruptly, leaping from one state to another; not accidently, but as a natural result of gradual quantitative changes in the unfolding of contradictions inherent in nature. (Stalin, 1938) This dialectical process results in Marxist methodology to scientifically predict the eventual downfall of capitalism to a higher stage of communism. The mistake often made with Marxism is to highlight the objective factors as primarily driving revolutionary change. Instead, by incorporating a reading of Marxist historical materialism, we begin to understand that objective factors inevitably give rise to revolts and not revolution; i.e. objectively the stock market will crash due to the structure of capitalism, giving rise to a subjective revolt. By incorporating historical materialism, Marxism focuses on the subjective factors alive within an epoch of history and seeks to measure the factors for revolution and the factors against; objective factors can include unintentional structures of exploitation and alienation; giving rise to subjective necessity to find a job, or join a union. It is this dialectical interrelation of object and subject that informs the Marxist methodology. Contrary to explanatory theory, which asserts that theory can be separate from practice, and that value-free knowledge is possible due to our sensations, ideas and perceptions; Marxist materialism holds that matter is primary, since it is the source of our ideas, and that our theory is derivative, a reflection of matter and practice. One cannot separate the thought from matter which thinks. Matter is the subject of all changes. (Marx, 2001, p.167) Whatever the material conditions of life of a society, such are the ideas and theories about them it is not the consciousness of men that determines their being, but, on the contrary, their social being that determines their consciousness. (Marx, 2001, p.425) In summation, Marxism has scientific qualities and foundational epistemology similar to explanatory theory; yet, by its break towards a more holistic methodology and historical materialist ontology, marks a nascent stage of constitutive theory. The Marxist ideological hypothesis marks a transition towards Post theoretical concepts. Post-structuralism claims that interpretation is void of any objectivity and as such political leaders, social activists, scholars and students all actively engage in a interpretation of the world that is ideological. Post-structuralism attacks the Realist foundational approach, highlighting how state-centric ontology results in predetermined practice; i.e. balance of power emerges as Realism marks a border between inside/outside, sovereign/anarchic, us/them (Campbell, 2007, p.216) and post-structuralism is concerned with how this inside and outside relation is mutually composed. Post-structuralism argues that these interpretations are made from a particular ideological vantage point and hence representation cannot be abstracted from our identities; therefore post-structuralism is concerned with the discourse of identity politics. (Campbell, 2007, pp.214-16) Post-structuralism is essentially conc erned with the deconstruction of truth claims; for example, Realism, Liberalism and Marxism all have a normative position and therefore claim to have uncovered some fundamental truth about the world. (Baylis et al., 2008, p.185) Overall, post-structuralism has a devastating critique and deconstruction of the normative element of traditional theories. However, I would argue that this meta-theoretical critique is useful in retrospect, yet, pacifying and un-politicizing by an failure to change the concrete conditions of society; otherwise contradicting its anti-normative perspective. The distinctions between explanatory and constitutive appear to be problematic and I believe this due to the construction of explanatory theory using a framework of Realist ontology, epistemology and methodology. This forces a superficial distinction to be drawn in the shape of constitutive theory, which directly opposes Realism. Yet, when placing Marxism and to a degree Liberalism within these inflexible categories, an element of overlap is necessary. Instead, using Robert Coxs more flexible categorisation; problem-solving and critical theory helps to show clearly the points of departure and encourage reflection on the process of theorising itself; i.e. to achieve a perspective on perspectives. (Cox, 1981, p.88) Realism and Liberalism would be defined as problem-solving theory due to its negation of the prevailing social and power relationships, as well as institutions and economic structure. The second category is critical theory, it is critical because it refuses to except the exi sting order as a non-historical occurrence, but question how that order came about and how it is maintained. (Cox, 1981, pp.88-89) Overall, the problem-solving and critical distinctions offer more flexibility and clarity between theoretical perspectives. Nevertheless, the distinctions made are on a normative basis and subsequently complicate the positioning of post theoretical perspectives. To conclude, I would argue that the distinctions of Explanatory and Constitutive theory are highly problematic since the act of categorisation, in itself, leads to the creation of new discourses that can dangerously disregard important underpinnings of major theories. As Marx once famously recalled if this is Marxism, then I am not a Marxist (Engels, 1890) and Foucaults effort to escape any fixed identity through his writings, (Gutting, 2005, p.10) illustrates the discomfort of categorisation as practice in political theory.

The Vision of the New World That the Colonists Brought

Early colonist came to American for a variety of reasons, from religious freedom to dreams of getting rich. In this analysis we will look at the vision of two colonies and how the different colony visions led to the colony creation, and the differences between them. The New England community was so strong and so supportive in comparison to that of the settlers in Jamestown, Chesapeake Bay, that it is no wonder they developed into two distinctly different cultures before the year 1700. The Chesapeake region developed into a land of plantations and money-driven owners with a very small middle class, and those in poverty creating the population.New England, on the other hand, had developed into a religion and family based society comprised of mostly middle class families by 1700. Looking at the terrain, government, and the people themselves, reveals clues about how the drastic split in society came to be. While residing in England, the Puritans and faithful Catholics faced persecution, which led to their immigration to the New World. Many groups and parishes applied for charters to America and, led by their priest, the Pilgrims and Puritans made the long voyage to North America. Their religion became a unique element in the New England colonies by 1700.Before landing, the groups settled on agreements, signing laws and pacts to ensure a community effort towards survival when they came to shore, and while settling in New England. Their strong sense of community and faith in God led them to develop a hardworking society by year 1700. Their towns were well organized, with the church being the basis of everyone's daily life, and they wanted to establish equality and have everyone working together in harmony. Family was an important part of the Puritan religion, so their ships came with twenty-two men and twenty-one women, so there was stability.They learned useful farming techniques from the Native Americans, and farming was their prime source of the economy. The Purit an work ethic kept people from working for extreme material gain. The Puritans were hard workers who had goal for a religiously purified town. Not everyone in England was facing harsh persecution and many travelers came to the New World with high hopes of fame and gold, which led to numerous conflicts. It was a land for the rich to get richer. The people that were assigned to the ships destined for Jamestown (Chesapeake Region) came without their families and their ages ranged from old to young, but mainly oung men. The men outnumbered the women six to one. This caused the society to be more chaotic because there were many broken families and a mad rush for the few women. The settlers in the Chesapeake region main goal were to get rich, or to gain new land and find gold. According to John Smith, all the people could do was live for gold; it was their only purpose. The Chesapeake Bay settlers had to endure the harshness of their new environment. The climate was not favorable and near ly half of the people died because of exposure to diseases or starvation.Those that were lucky and survived these hardships were left to fight with the local Indians. Dis-organized and unable to find mountains of gold, large tobacco plantations were started and farming was taken up by the settlers. These business men were not use to being agricultural farmers. This was why things were so difficult before John Smith took lead of the colony with his â€Å"You don’t work, you don’t eat† mentality. People were not accustomed to hard work and physical labor, and the colony was dying slow. As a result of the hardships the first importation of slavery began in the colonies.At first indentured servants were being used to work the fields, but they were far less exploited than the slaves. Indentured servants worked for the person who paid their way to the Colony until the depths were paid off, but soon their services were less useful and slaves were being imported in mass ive numbers. The colonial planters were making money and gaining large profits off of free labor. The development of the two cultures may also have been the result of the terrain the groups occupied. In the Chesapeake region, the colonists settled on swampy marshland that was hard to defend and even more difficult to survive in.With so many people dying from disease and starvation, and the extreme shortage of marriageable women, the population grew slowly, if at all. Families were more groups of mangy children half related, from different fathers. Frequent death made unnatural family life a common thing. In the New England colonies, the people chose flat, manageable ground that left them with easy to plow fields. The soil and religious beliefs were ideal for subsistence farming, which meant small, manageable farms that would provide for a family of eight to ten. Since the farmers looked only to feed themselves, there was little, if any, need for extra abor; having most, if not all, workers available inside their own family. The moderate climate made disease a rarity in the colony, and death even more so. The balanced family life and food supply meant more able-minded colonists. Society had a patriarchal structure of man before woman and woman before child. Children themselves skipped over a childhood and were treated as adults at a very early age. They were expected to obey their parents and keep faith in the church. All these elements together led to Northern prosperity and growth. The land itself was important, more so was how it became used for profit.This â€Å"land is money† belief was a unique attribute of the region by 1700. The motive for profit also helped to develop society in the Chesapeake region. The Chesapeake men discovered tobacco and began a fierce production of it from their plantations. Since tobacco depleted the soil rapidly, new land was always a must. To acquire this land, wealthy owners paid for servants to be brought over and wor k the fields. Each was given a land grant of fifty acres, which was not worth all that much. However, the men were bringing over ten, twenty, maybe even thirty servants to work in the tobacco fields.Thirty men at fifty acres a piece add up to a lot of land, so the land owners started to bring in slavery and more black people to work their fields. Instead of growing tobacco, New England farmers were most likely to produce barley or corn, which helped them stay well fed during long winter months. They were more concerned with the survival of their families than the profit they could make from the rich soil, so the food was not sold for a profit. Rather, the colony became self-supporting in the issue of food. With food taken care of, the New England colonies were left to import stoves, tea, and spices, among other things.Since they only needed to grow food to support their own family as subsistence farmers, New England farmers rarely had any more than their original acreage. This creat ed a more equal reality for all owners, comfortable or struggling. The differences between the New England colonies and the Chesapeake colonies led to separate societies by the time of the 1700's. Agriculture, motive, people, religion, and terrain are all factors that affected how they grew apart. However, it is also through the actions of the men and woman who settled in the regions, and the choices they made, that led to the development of these two colonies.

Major Component Agencies of the Dhs Essay

This paper will discuss what are the major component agencies of DHS and their primary functions. Major Component Agencies of the DHS Major agencies of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) are; The Directorate for National Protection and Programs, The Science and Technology Directorate, The Office of Health Affairs, The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), U. S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP), Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), The Office of Investigations, The Office of Detention and Removal Operations, The Federal Protective Service, The Office of Intelligence, The Office of Intelligence and Analysis, The Office of Operations Coordination, The Domestic Nuclear Detection Office, The Transportation Administration (TSA), The Federal Law Enforcement Training Center (FLETC), The Citizenship and Immigration Services, The Coast Guard, and The Secret Service. Their Primary Functions The Directorate for National Protection and Programs has five divisions that work to advance the DHS’s risk-reduction mission. The primary development and research arm of the department belongs to the Science and Technology Directorate. The Office of Health Affairs coordinates all medical activities to ensure appropriate preparation for the response to incidents having medical significance. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) manages federal response and recovery efforts following any national incident, administers the National Flood Insurance Program, and prepares the nation for hazards. The CBP prevents terrorists and their weapons from entering the United States. They are responsible for protecting U. S. borders, while simultaneously facilitating the flow of legitimate trade and travel. The largest investigative arm of DHS is ICE. They are responsible for identifying and shutting down vulnerabilities both in the nation’s borders and in economic, infrastructure security, and transportation. The Office of Investigations investigates a wide range of international and domestic activities that violate customs laws and immigration and threatens national security. The department who is ensures the departure from the United States of all illegal aliens through the fair enforcement of the nation’s immigration laws is the Office of Detention and Removal Operations. The Federal Protective Service is responsible for securing, ensuring a safe environment, and policing in which federal agencies can conduct their business at more than 8,800 federal facilities nationwide. Collecting, analyzing, and disseminating strategic and tactical intelligence data belongs to the Office of Intelligence. The Office of Intelligence and Analysis is responsible for using information and intelligence from multiple sources to identify and assess current and future threats to the U. S. The responsibility for monitoring the security of the U. S. on a daily basis and coordinating activities within the department and with governors, law enforcement partners, DHS advisors, and critical infrastructure operators in all fifty states and more than fifty major urban areas nationwide falls under the Office of Operations Coordination. The Domestic Nuclear Detection Office works to enhance the nuclear detection efforts of federal, tribal, states, territorial, and local governments and the private sector and to ensure a coordinated response to such threats. This department protects the nation’s transportation systems. In addition, agents also inspect air carrier operations to the United States, fly air marshal missions, assess security of airports overseas, and training overseas security personnel is TSA. The FLETC provides career–long training to law enforcement professionals to help them fulfill their responsibilities safely and proficiently. The Citizenship and Immigration Services is responsible for the administration of immigration and naturalization adjudication functions and the establishment of immigration service’s policies and priorities. This department is also consider a military department, which protects the public, the environment, and U. S. economic interests in the nation’s ports, along the coast, on international waters, on its waterways, or in any maritime region as required to support national security. Finally, we have the Secret Service who protects the president and other high-level officials and investigates counterfeiting and other financial crimes, identity theft, computer fraud, including financial institution fraud, and computer-based attacks on our nation’s financial, banking, and telecommunications infrastructure. Final Thoughts The Department of Homeland Security was activated in January 2003 from the Homeland Security Act of 2002 to help combat terrorism after the September 11 attacks on the United States. An outline is provided of what happened when the DHS was formed. Our lives in the United States as we knew it, has forever been changed since 9-1-1. We still have a long way to go to become more aware and secure, but it is not impossible. There are still many loopholes to tackle, red tape to cut, and the lack of proper equipment and training which still needs to be addressed on a continuous basis. On March 1, 2003, the DHS absorbed the Immigration and Naturalization Service and assumed its duties. By doing this, it divided the enforcement and services functions into two separate and new agencies: ICE and Citizenship and Immigration Services. The investigative divisions and intelligence gathering units of the INS and Customs Service were merged forming Homeland Security Investigations. Additionally, the border enforcement functions of the INS, including the U.S. Border Patrol, the U.S. Customs Service, and the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service were consolidated into a new agency under DHS: U.S. Customs and Border Protection (Creation of DHS, n.d.). References Creation-department-homeland-security, n.d. Retrieved on 1215/2012 from http://www.dhs.gov/creation-department-homeland-security Peak, K. J., 2012. Policing America challenges and best practices. Retrieved on 12/15/2012 from Chapter Two, Pages 44-48.

Gender Roles And Its Characters Essay - 1435 Words

The story of Zootopia and its characters connect to audience members in several different ways. The first way is through the issue of gender roles and how they are pushed onto children. A gender role is society’s idea of which behaviors are appropriate or desired for men and women. These qualities have always been pressed onto young children but this films teaches girls and boys to defy these traditional roles. Usually the traits that coincide with masculinity are strong, active, logical, etc. and the qualities that are described as feminine are weak, passive, and emotional (Linkletter). Most people think that gender roles are biological, when in fact, they are not and they can have a major impact on children. The deputy director for the University of Warwick’s Centre for the Study of Women and Gender, Maria do Mar Pereira, observed teenagers in Portugal and then questioned their ideas about being feminine and masculine. Many girls stated that even if they liked physic al activities, like sports, they would avoid participating in them at school or around boys. They feared that this would cause them to look unfeminine or be ridiculed for looking funny. The teenage boys said that they felt the need to constantly participate in â€Å"everyday low level violence† by physically fighting with other boys. They also felt like they needed to consume unhealthy amount of alcohol to demonstrate their manliness (Culp-Ressler). Many people have these same ideas planted into their minds,Show MoreRelatedGender Roles Of Female Characters1479 Words   |  6 PagesThroughout the eras, literature has mirrored the social changes taking place in English society specifically in regards to gender roles of female characters. The Elizabethan era, which lasted from 1558 to 1603, is often referred to as the golden age by historians where many transitions in English society regarding marriage and gender took place (Ivic 110). It was a time in which wives were viewed as the property of their husbands (Ivic 110). However, every woman was expected to marry and be dependentRead MoreFemale Characters Overthrowing Gender Roles1101 Words   |  5 Pagesthink of. Kate Chopin, a primarily short story writer, does not fall short of this statement. Through her stories, â€Å"The Storm,† and â€Å"The Story of an Hour,† the women seem to be trapped in confining gender roles. By the conclusion of each story all the wom en find a way to challenge their everyday roles and overthrow them in some matter. Although these stories are dissimilar from each other, both show the struggle that women have against one or several antagonists in their lives. Chopin shows hardshipsRead MoreGender Roles Of Female Characters In Disneys Frozen807 Words   |  4 PagesFrom the post-2000s to today, gender roles still remain as one of the big topics. Compared to society’s ideologies of women in 1930s, women are shown to be intelligent, active, and most importantly, independent. The portrayal of female characters with such characteristics is apparent in Disney’s contemporary film, Frozen (2013). The film portrays two female protagonists, Princess Anna and Queen Elsa. The theme of the film is family; the film starts out with childish, sisterly relationships, whichRead MoreMale Gender Role. Tobias Wolff Gives All Of The Characters1844 Words   |  8 PagesMale Gender Role Tobias Wolff gives all of the characters in Hunters in the Snow different characteristics and personalities. Yet the characters are still alike in the way that they all fall under common male roles and stereotypes. Common roles like being the tough guy that can handle anything and does not complain about anything or saying rude things to one another. Wolff Shows this whether it be from the way the characters communicate to one another or their actions. Most males will agree thatRead MoreThe Significance of Blurred Gender Roles for the Key Male Characters in ‘Kitchen’ and ‘Like Water for Chocolate’1724 Words   |  7 PagesWORLD LITERATURE ASSIGMENT ONE The significance of blurred gender roles for the key male characters in ‘Kitchen’ and ‘Like Water For Chocolate’ Word Count: 1497 Banana Yoshimoto’s novella ‘Kitchen’ and ‘Like Water For Chocolate’ by Laura Esquivel explore the blurring of gender roles through the characterisation of the key male characters, Eriko and Pedro. The obscurity of gender roles is utilised by both authors as a literary tool in the formation of interpersonal relationships with the protagonistsRead MoreThe Effects Of Television On Children s Television1306 Words   |  6 Pagesabout the way they need to act according to their gender roles (Signorelli, 2001). The more time viewers spend with television the more likely their conceptions about the world and its people will reflect what they see on television (Signorelli, 2001). Through pursuing an experiment and reading the findings of Signorelli (2001), we can conclude that children’s television shows convey the traditional ideas of gender roles for women but these gender roles are slowly shifting from traditional to non-traditionalRead MoreHow Het eronormative Gender Roles Are Reinforced Through Socialisation Of Popular Media? Essay1460 Words   |  6 Pageschildren aged 2-13. Through its clever humour and amiable characters, it is easy to see why it captivates children, and likewise adults, across the world. SpongeBob Squarepants is not unique in reflecting stereotypical gender roles and cultural meanings in society. The cartoon, created by Hillenburg, conveys subliminal messages of binaries, gender roles and hierarchy. Through the characters, this essay will observe how heteronormative gender roles are reinforced through socialisation of popular mediaRead MoreGender And Gender Roles : The Movie Transporter 2 Of 2005 Directed By Louis Leterrier1747 Words   |  7 PagesLiterary works depict normative social roles on gender thereby portraying either gender as having specific set of characteristics in comparison to one another (Fetterley 492). The movie Transporter 2 of 2005 directed by Louis Leterrier and starring Jason Sta tham as Frank Martin is just an example of how the male and female gender are assigned given roles that bring out their characters as distinct (Leterrier). The movie uses both gender to express normative social stereotyping that portrays malesRead MoreGender Roles Of Men And Women1749 Words   |  7 PagesRoles of Males and Females in Different Television Programs Americans watch an alarming amount of television starting from a young age. The average American watches five hours of television a day (Koblin 2016). This enormous amount of media input influences perceptions and is connected to cementing many things in people, such as gender roles. Gender roles are thoughts, actions, and feelings learned by a person fitting their gender due to cultural norms (Santrock 2016). Additionally, stereotypes appealRead MoreMedia s Influence On The Socialization Of A Child997 Words   |  4 Pagestraits and the concept of the gender. Gender has been portraying stereotypically for a long period in the history of media. Media plays a very vital role in the socialization of a child or even adult, through different the storyline, characters and dramatization of different genders through different theme and portrayals. Traditionally, media have broadened the representation of male. In the presence of male and female characters in animated cartoons, 67.4% characters were male and only 32.6% were